Science fiction utopias explore ideal societies and their flaws, often serving as critiques of contemporary politics and technology. This deep dive examines how authors like Verne, Wells, and Burroughs use speculative settings to question progress, human nature, and the cost of perfection, revealing the genre's enduring relevance.
About Our Editorial Process
This guide is prepared using historical bibliographic research,
literary references, and structured analysis of recognized works.
Our editorial team reviews book selection based on historical
importance, cultural influence, and literary significance.
About This Literary Category
The science fiction utopia genre emerged in the late 19th century, a period of rapid industrialization and scientific advancement. Early works like Jules Verne's 'From the Earth to the Moon' (1865) and H.G. Wells's 'The War in the Air' (1908) reflect both optimism and anxiety about technology's role in society. Verne's meticulous engineering detail embodies the era's faith in progress, while Wells's darker visions warn of its destructive potential. The genre often uses utopian or dystopian settings to critique contemporary social structures, from imperialism to class inequality. Edgar Rice Burroughs's Barsoom series, though more romantic, also imagines a hierarchical Martian society that mirrors Earth's own. The genre's international influence is evident in its adaptation across cultures, with each author infusing their work with local concerns. Today, these utopian narratives remain relevant as they grapple with timeless questions about governance, ethics, and the human condition, offering both escapism and cautionary tales.
Publication Chronology & Historical Span of Science Fiction Utopias
Our Science Fiction Utopias digital archive encompasses 19 cataloged masterworks, spanning a chronological range from 1993 (Thuvia, maid of Mars — Reading Companion by Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 1875-1950) to 2025 (The magnificent possession — A Closer Reading by Asimov, Isaac, 1920-1992, Meskin, Mort, 1916-1995 [Illustrator], Scott, John Walter, 1907-1987 [Illustrator]). The following verified timeline details the sequential release of core literary milestones within this domain:
- 1993: Thuvia, maid of Mars — Reading Companion — Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 1875-1950
- 1993: From the Earth to the moon; and, round the moon — Themes and Context — Verne, Jules, 1828-1905
- 1996: The Door in the Wall, and Other Stories — Story, Setting & Ideas — Wells, H. G. (Herbert George), 1866-1946
- 1997: The War in the Air — Edition Insights — Wells, H. G. (Herbert George), 1866-1946
- 2002: Five Weeks in a Balloon Or, Journeys and Discoveries in Africa by Three Englishmen — Inside the Classic — Verne, Jules, 1828-1905
- 2004: Definitions: Essays in Contemporary Criticism [First Series] — A Reader’s Guide — Canby, Henry Seidel, 1878-1961
- 2004: Herbert Carter's Legacy; Or, the Inventor's Son — Reading Notes — Alger, Horatio, Jr., 1832-1899
- 2004: Facing the Flag — Edition Insights — Verne, Jules, 1828-1905
- 2005: The Mantooth — Themes and Context — Leadem, Christopher
- 2009: The Works of Robert Louis Stevenson - Swanston Edition, Vol. 05 — A Reader’s Guide — Lang, Andrew, 1844-1912 [Other], Stevenson, Robert Louis, 1850-1894
- 2015: Stories from Dickens — Text and Context — Dickens, Charles, 1812-1870, McSpadden, J. Walker (Joseph Walker), 1874-1960
- 2019: A Maid in Arcady — Reading Notes — Barbour, Ralph Henry, 1870-1944, Von Rapp, Frederic J., 1877-1948 [Illustrator]
- 2024: The abysmal invaders — Themes and Context — Hamilton, Edmond, 1904-1977, Rankin, Hugh, 1878-1956 [Illustrator]
- 2024: The thin match — Story, Setting & Ideas — Whitehead, Henry S. (Henry St. Clair), 1882-1932
- 2024: Box-garden — Themes and Context — Lang, Allen Kim, 1928-
- 2024: Cities in the air — Inside the Classic — Hamilton, Edmond, 1904-1977, Paul, Frank R. (Frank Rudolph), 1884-1963 [Illustrator]
- 2024: Voyages to the Moon and the Sun — Reading Notes — Aldington, Richard, 1892-1962 [Translator], Cyrano de Bergerac, 1619-1655
- 2025: The valley of eyes unseen — Text and Context — Collins, Gilbert, 1890-1960
- 2025: The magnificent possession — A Closer Reading — Asimov, Isaac, 1920-1992, Meskin, Mort, 1916-1995 [Illustrator], Scott, John Walter, 1907-1987 [Illustrator]
Author Bibliographical Footprint
A breakdown of primary literary contributors and their recorded volume within this collection:
| Author Name | Cataloged Works | Representative Titles |
|---|---|---|
| Verne, Jules, 1828-1905 | 3 | From the Earth to the moon; and, round the moon — Themes and Context, Five Weeks in a Balloon Or, Journeys and Discoveries in Africa by Three Englishmen — Inside the Classic |
| Wells, H. G. (Herbert George), 1866-1946 | 2 | The Door in the Wall, and Other Stories — Story, Setting & Ideas, The War in the Air — Edition Insights |
| Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 1875-1950 | 1 | Thuvia, maid of Mars — Reading Companion |
| Canby, Henry Seidel, 1878-1961 | 1 | Definitions: Essays in Contemporary Criticism [First Series] — A Reader’s Guide |
| Alger, Horatio, Jr., 1832-1899 | 1 | Herbert Carter's Legacy; Or, the Inventor's Son — Reading Notes |
| Leadem, Christopher | 1 | The Mantooth — Themes and Context |
| Lang, Andrew, 1844-1912 [Other], Stevenson, Robert Louis, 1850-1894 | 1 | The Works of Robert Louis Stevenson - Swanston Edition, Vol. 05 — A Reader’s Guide |
| Dickens, Charles, 1812-1870, McSpadden, J. Walker (Joseph Walker), 1874-1960 | 1 | Stories from Dickens — Text and Context |
| Barbour, Ralph Henry, 1870-1944, Von Rapp, Frederic J., 1877-1948 [Illustrator] | 1 | A Maid in Arcady — Reading Notes |
| Hamilton, Edmond, 1904-1977, Rankin, Hugh, 1878-1956 [Illustrator] | 1 | The abysmal invaders — Themes and Context |
| Whitehead, Henry S. (Henry St. Clair), 1882-1932 | 1 | The thin match — Story, Setting & Ideas |
| Lang, Allen Kim, 1928- | 1 | Box-garden — Themes and Context |
Century Distribution of Science Fiction Utopias Literature
Distribution of published texts categorized by historical centuries:
| Century Span | Volume of Masterpieces |
|---|---|
| 1901 - 2000 | 4 books |
| 2001 - 2100 | 15 books |
- Oldest publication: 1993
- Newest publication: 2025
- Average publication year: 2011
- Most represented author: Verne, Jules, 1828-1905 (3 books)
Critical Analysis of Core Masterpieces
Thuvia, maid of Mars — Reading Companion
by Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 1875-1950
Historical Significance
Part of Burroughs's Barsoom series, this novel exemplifies early 20th-century planetary romance, blending adventure with social commentary on honor and gender roles.
Historical Context
Published in 1920, during the pulp magazine era, reflecting post-WWI fascination with exoticism and escapism.
Literary Style
Omniscient third-person narrative with fast-paced action, minimal interiority, and heavy use of dialogue to convey character and conflict.
Writing Style
Efficient, sensory prose with compound adjectives and exclamatory dialogue; favors physical tells over psychological depth.
Major Themes
Honor, gender dynamics, political intrigue, survival, and the clash between civilization and the wild.
Critical Reception
Initially popular as pulp adventure; later critiqued for simplistic characterization and colonial undertones.
Legacy
Influenced later space opera and planetary romance; remains a classic of early SF.
Adaptations
None major; influenced comic and film adaptations of the Barsoom series.
Recommended Audience
Fans of classic pulp SF, adventure, and planetary romance.
Reading Difficulty
Easy; straightforward prose and plot.
Main Characters
Thuvia, Prince Astok of Dusar, Carthoris of Helium, Jav.
Setting
Barsoom (Mars), specifically the royal gardens of Ptarth and the phantom city of Lothar.
Literary Movement
Pulp science fiction, planetary romance.
Similar Books
A Princess of Mars, The Gods of Mars, The Warlord of Mars.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
From the Earth to the moon; and, round the moon — Themes and Context
by Verne, Jules, 1828-1905
Historical Significance
One of the first scientifically grounded space travel stories, predicting many aspects of lunar exploration.
Historical Context
Written in 1865, during the post-Civil War era and the height of the Industrial Revolution, reflecting American optimism and technological enthusiasm.
Literary Style
Alternates between technical reportage and wry social commentary; shifts from public spectacle to private meditation.
Writing Style
Precise, detailed, with a mix of dry humor and lyrical passages; uses chapter headings as timeline markers.
Major Themes
Scientific progress, human ambition, the sublime of space, the tension between collective action and individual reflection.
Critical Reception
Praised for its scientific accuracy and imaginative scope; criticized for thin characterization.
Legacy
Influenced later space fiction and inspired real-life space enthusiasts; a foundational text of hard SF.
Adaptations
Multiple film and TV adaptations, including a 1902 silent film and a 1958 movie.
Recommended Audience
Fans of hard SF, Verne enthusiasts, and readers interested in the history of space travel.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate; technical passages may challenge some readers.
Main Characters
President Barbicane, Captain Nicholl, Michel Ardan.
Setting
Baltimore, Maryland, and the projectile traveling to the moon.
Literary Movement
Hard science fiction, adventure fiction.
Similar Books
The First Men in the Moon, The Time Machine, The War of the Worlds.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
The Door in the Wall, and Other Stories — Story, Setting & Ideas
by Wells, H. G. (Herbert George), 1866-1946
Historical Significance
A landmark collection of early psychological and speculative fiction, showcasing Wells's mastery of the short story form.
Historical Context
Published in 1911, during the Edwardian era, a time of social change and anxiety about modernity.
Literary Style
Frame narratives, unreliable testimony, and a tension between rational and fantastic elements.
Writing Style
Precise sensory detail, dialogue that reveals power dynamics, and a focus on subjective experience.
Major Themes
Haunting, longing, the boundary between reality and imagination, industrial alienation, and psychological compulsion.
Critical Reception
Highly regarded for its literary quality and psychological depth; considered a precursor to modern fantasy.
Legacy
Influenced later weird fiction and psychological horror; the title story is a classic of the genre.
Adaptations
Several stories adapted for radio and television.
Recommended Audience
Fans of literary SF, weird fiction, and psychological horror.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate; requires attention to framing and subtext.
Main Characters
Lionel Wallace (The Door in the Wall), Raut and Horrocks (The Cone).
Setting
Various, including London and industrial landscapes.
Literary Movement
Edwardian speculative fiction, psychological realism.
Similar Books
The Time Machine, The Island of Dr. Moreau, The Invisible Man.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
The War in the Air — Edition Insights
by Wells, H. G. (Herbert George), 1866-1946
Historical Significance
A prescient novel predicting aerial warfare and global conflict, reflecting pre-WWI anxieties.
Historical Context
Published in 1908, before the Wright brothers' flights were widely known; reflects fears of German militarism and technological hubris.
Literary Style
Colloquial diction, shifting between intimate and panoramic perspectives, with a focus on the common man's experience.
Writing Style
Dialect-heavy dialogue, technical descriptions of airships, and a structure that moves from domestic to global to aftermath.
Major Themes
Technological hubris, the cost of progress, the gap between ordinary people and war machinery, systemic collapse.
Critical Reception
Praised for its prophetic vision; criticized for uneven pacing and thin characterization.
Legacy
Influenced later disaster and war fiction; a key text in the development of the 'future war' genre.
Adaptations
None major; influenced later films about aerial warfare.
Recommended Audience
Fans of early SF, war fiction, and social commentary.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate; some technical passages and dialect.
Main Characters
Bert Smallways, Tom Smallways, various German and American officers.
Setting
England, Germany, and the United States, primarily in the air.
Literary Movement
Edwardian speculative fiction, future war genre.
Similar Books
The Shape of Things to Come, The War of the Worlds, The Time Machine.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
Five Weeks in a Balloon Or, Journeys and Discoveries in Africa by Three Englishmen — Inside the Classic
by Verne, Jules, 1828-1905
Historical Significance
Verne's first novel, establishing his formula of scientific adventure and exploration.
Historical Context
Published in 1863, during the height of European exploration of Africa, reflecting colonial attitudes and scientific curiosity.
Literary Style
Blends scientific reportage with dramatic dialogue and vivid scene-painting; uses a framing device of Dr. Ferguson's notes.
Writing Style
Precise cataloging of geography, with occasional lyrical passages; dialogue reveals character through contrasting speech patterns.
Major Themes
Exploration, scientific progress, colonialism, the sublime of nature, and the tension between reason and emotion.
Critical Reception
Well-received for its imaginative geography and adventure; later critiqued for colonialist perspectives.
Legacy
Launched Verne's career and influenced the adventure novel genre.
Adaptations
Several film and TV adaptations, including a 1962 movie.
Recommended Audience
Fans of adventure fiction, Verne enthusiasts, and readers interested in 19th-century exploration.
Reading Difficulty
Easy to moderate; straightforward prose.
Main Characters
Dr. Samuel Ferguson, Dick Kennedy, Joe.
Setting
Africa, traversed by balloon.
Literary Movement
Scientific romance, adventure fiction.
Similar Books
Journey to the Center of the Earth, The Mysterious Island, King Solomon's Mines.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
Definitions: Essays in Contemporary Criticism [First Series] — A Reader’s Guide
by Canby, Henry Seidel, 1878-1961
Historical Significance
A key work of early 20th-century American literary criticism, reflecting the shift from romanticism to realism.
Historical Context
Published in 1922, after WWI, during a period of cultural disillusionment and the rise of modernist literature.
Literary Style
Academic yet accessible, using precise diction and structural observations; essays are diagnostic rather than prescriptive.
Writing Style
Active verbs of scrutiny, rhythm of listing, and a self-aware modesty about the limits of criticism.
Major Themes
The role of criticism, the evolution of American fiction, the tension between realism and romanticism, and the cultural shifts reflected in literature.
Critical Reception
Respected for its clarity and insight; considered a valuable document of its time.
Legacy
Influenced later American critics; remains a useful model for close reading.
Adaptations
None.
Recommended Audience
Students of literary criticism, scholars of American literature, and readers interested in early 20th-century cultural history.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate to difficult; requires familiarity with early 20th-century literature.
Main Characters
N/A (non-fiction).
Setting
N/A (non-fiction).
Literary Movement
American literary criticism, realism.
Similar Books
The American Novel, The Critical Tradition, The Mirror and the Lamp.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
Herbert Carter's Legacy; Or, the Inventor's Son — Reading Notes
by Alger, Horatio, Jr., 1832-1899
Historical Significance
A typical example of Horatio Alger's 'rags-to-riches' formula, reflecting 19th-century American values of hard work and virtue.
Historical Context
Published in 1875, during the Gilded Age, a time of rapid industrialization and social mobility myths.
Literary Style
Simple, direct prose with dialogue-driven plot; focuses on financial crises and moral lessons.
Writing Style
Blunt dialogue, clear moral stakes, and a pattern of benevolent strangers recognizing merit.
Major Themes
Perseverance, honesty, the virtue of hard work, the role of benefactors, and the triumph of merit over adversity.
Critical Reception
Popular with young readers; later criticized for promoting a simplistic view of success.
Legacy
Defined the 'Alger myth' and influenced American popular culture.
Adaptations
None major.
Recommended Audience
Fans of 19th-century children's literature and readers interested in the 'rags-to-riches' narrative.
Reading Difficulty
Easy.
Main Characters
Herbert Carter, Mrs. Carter, Squire Leech, Mr. Cameron.
Setting
A small American town, likely in the Northeast.
Literary Movement
Didactic children's literature, realism.
Similar Books
Ragged Dick, Tattered Tom, Luck and Pluck.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
Facing the Flag — Edition Insights
by Verne, Jules, 1828-1905
Historical Significance
A late Verne novel combining adventure with technological speculation, reflecting his continued interest in submarines and isolated societies.
Historical Context
Published in 1896, during the height of European imperialism and the development of submarine technology.
Literary Style
Gradual revelation through first-person notes and third-person narration; builds mystery through concrete details.
Writing Style
Methodical, observational prose with a focus on inference and deduction; uses visiting cards and notes as plot devices.
Major Themes
Confinement, technology, piracy, the nature of criminal societies, and the tension between wonder and menace.
Critical Reception
Moderately successful; considered a lesser Verne work but praised for its inventive setting.
Legacy
Influenced later stories about hidden bases and pirate utopias.
Adaptations
None major.
Recommended Audience
Verne enthusiasts and fans of adventure fiction with technological elements.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate.
Main Characters
Count d'Artigas, Simon Hart, Engineer Serko, Captain Spade.
Setting
New-Berne, North Carolina, and the hollow mountain Back Cup.
Literary Movement
Scientific romance, adventure fiction.
Similar Books
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, The Mysterious Island, The Survivors of the Chancellor.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
The Mantooth — Themes and Context
by Leadem, Christopher
Historical Significance
A contemporary work blending prehistoric fiction with speculative elements, exploring consciousness and survival.
Historical Context
Published in 2005, reflecting modern interest in deep time and animal perspectives.
Literary Style
Dual narrative alternating between human and animal perspectives; lyrical, archaic prose with free indirect discourse.
Writing Style
Sensory, immediate, with a mix of emotional immediacy and anthropological distance; uses naming as a motif.
Major Themes
Survival, empathy, the boundary between human and animal, instinct vs. reason, and the ethics of predation.
Critical Reception
Limited; niche readership.
Legacy
Contributes to the tradition of prehistoric and animal-centered fiction.
Adaptations
None.
Recommended Audience
Fans of prehistoric fiction, literary SF, and animal narratives.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate; lyrical prose may require careful reading.
Main Characters
Kalus, Akar (wolf), the Mantooth (great cat).
Setting
Prehistoric valley and forests.
Literary Movement
Speculative fiction, prehistoric fiction.
Similar Books
The Clan of the Cave Bear, The Inheritors, The White Bone.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
The Works of Robert Louis Stevenson - Swanston Edition, Vol. 05 — A Reader’s Guide
by Lang, Andrew, 1844-1912 [Other], Stevenson, Robert Louis, 1850-1894
Historical Significance
A curated collection showcasing Stevenson's range, from collaborative adventure to Gothic novella.
Historical Context
Published posthumously in 1912, during the Edwardian era, reflecting continued interest in Stevenson's work.
Literary Style
Frame narratives, nested stories, and a mix of ironic and horrific tones.
Writing Style
Dense sensory observation, emotional volatility, and precise psychological detail; uses dedication to set tone.
Major Themes
Duplicity, hidden identities, the eruption of violence, moral complexity, and the contrast between levity and horror.
Critical Reception
Highly regarded for its literary quality; 'The Dynamiter' is considered a lesser work, while 'Jekyll and Hyde' is a classic.
Legacy
Jekyll and Hyde remains a cultural touchstone; the collection preserves Stevenson's collaborative work.
Adaptations
Jekyll and Hyde has numerous film and stage adaptations.
Recommended Audience
Stevenson enthusiasts and readers of Victorian and Edwardian fiction.
Reading Difficulty
Moderate to difficult; some stories require attention to framing.
Main Characters
Various, including Challoner, Somerset, Desborough, Dr. Jekyll, Mr. Hyde.
Setting
London and various exotic locations.
Literary Movement
Victorian adventure, Gothic fiction.
Similar Books
New Arabian Nights, The Master of Ballantrae, The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
Stories from Dickens — Text and Context
by Dickens, Charles, 1812-1870, McSpadden, J. Walker (Joseph Walker), 1874-1960
Historical Significance
A turn-of-the-century adaptation that shaped how Dickens's works were introduced to young readers.
Historical Context
Published in 1906, during the Edwardian era, when children's literature was becoming a distinct genre.
Literary Style
Abridged, streamlined narratives focusing on children's journeys; retains Dickens's language but compresses plots.
Writing Style
Emotional, direct, with repeated motifs (e.g., 'unchanged'); uses scene selection to highlight moral arcs.
Major Themes
Childhood hardship, perseverance, the power of love, and redemption through constancy.
Critical Reception
Popular as an introduction to Dickens; later criticized for oversimplifying complex works.
Legacy
Influenced later adaptations of Dickens for young readers.
Adaptations
N/A (itself an adaptation).
Recommended Audience
Young readers and those seeking an accessible entry to Dickens.
Reading Difficulty
Easy.
Main Characters
Florence Dombey, Mr. Dombey, Oliver Twist, Little Nell, etc.
Setting
Various, including London and English countryside.
Literary Movement
Victorian literature, children's literature.
Similar Books
Dickens's original novels, other adaptations by McSpadden.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
A Maid in Arcady — Reading Notes
by Barbour, Ralph Henry, 1870-1944, Von Rapp, Frederic J., 1877-1948 [Illustrator]
Historical Significance
A pastoral romance from the early 20th century, blending classical allusion with modern sensibility.
Historical Context
Published in 1919, after WWI, reflecting a desire for escapism and a return to idyllic settings.
Literary Style
Lyrical, sensory prose with personified nature; witty dialogue and a balance of idyllic and ironic tones.
Writing Style
Precise physical description, animate landscape, and dialogue that reveals character through repartee.
Major Themes
Romance, the collision of fantasy and reality, the pastoral ideal, and the tension between freedom and social boundaries.
Critical Reception
Moderately popular in its time; now considered a minor work.
Legacy
Represents the pastoral romance genre in early 20th-century American literature.
Adaptations
None.
Recommended Audience
Fans of pastoral romance and early 20th-century American fiction.
Reading Difficulty
Easy to moderate.
Main Characters
Ethan, the unnamed woman (Maid).
Setting
A hidden stream in New England, near Stillhaven.
Literary Movement
Pastoral romance, American regionalism.
Similar Books
The Garden of Eden, The Shepherdess of the Alps, Theocritus's Idylls.
Key Literary Concepts
Related Topics
Frequently Asked Questions
How do utopian themes in Verne's 'From the Earth to the Moon' differ from those in Wells's 'The War in the Air'?
Verne's utopianism is rooted in scientific optimism and collective achievement, portraying space travel as a triumph of human ingenuity. In contrast, Wells's 'The War in the Air' is a dystopian warning, showing how technology can lead to global destruction. Verne celebrates progress; Wells critiques its hubris.
What role does the pastoral ideal play in 'A Maid in Arcady' compared to the utopian societies in other featured books?
In 'A Maid in Arcady,' the pastoral setting represents a personal, intimate utopia—a retreat from modern life. Unlike the technological utopias of Verne or the political ones of Wells, Barbour's Arcady is a space for romantic and individual fulfillment, highlighting the genre's range from public to private ideals.
How does Burroughs's 'Thuvia, Maid of Mars' use the concept of honor to construct a utopian society?
Burroughs's Martian society is built on rigid codes of honor and personal space, where a single improper touch can escalate into a diplomatic crisis. This honor system functions as a utopian ideal of order and respect, but also reveals its fragility and the potential for conflict, reflecting early 20th-century anxieties about social stability.
In what ways does 'The Door in the Wall' by H.G. Wells critique the idea of a perfect world?
Wells's story presents a magical door to a perfect garden, but the protagonist is haunted by it and unable to fully embrace it. This suggests that utopia may be psychologically unattainable or that the longing for perfection can be destructive. The story critiques the very idea of a perfect world by showing its cost.
How does the collaborative work in Stevenson's 'The Dynamiter' reflect utopian or dystopian themes?
In 'The Dynamiter,' the characters' involvement with political crime and explosives reflects a dystopian undercurrent of societal instability. The dedication's mention of 'coquetting with political crime' suggests a critique of revolutionary utopianism, warning that idealistic violence can lead to moral corruption.
Conclusion & Scholarly Summary
From Verne's optimistic voyages to Wells's cautionary tales, the science fiction utopia genre reveals a persistent tension between the dream of perfection and the reality of human fallibility. These works, whether set on Mars, in the air, or in a hidden valley, use speculative settings to probe the limits of progress, the nature of society, and the cost of ideals. Their enduring relevance lies in their ability to make us question what we truly want from the future.
